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providing business for the increasingly uneconomic shuttle； we could have launched a couple of years earlier and maybe with two spacecraft instead of one。
But whether in single launches or in pairs； the space…faring nations have clearly decided that the time is ripe to return robot explorers to Mars。 Mission designs change； new nations enter the field； old nations find they no longer have the resources。 Even already funded programs cannot always be relied upon。 But current plans do reveal something of the intensity of effort and the depth of dedication。
As I write this book； there are tentative plans by the United States； Russia； France； Germany； Japan； Austria； Finland； Italy； Canada； the European Space Agency； and other entities for a coordinated robotic exploration of Mars。 In the seven years between 1996 and 2003； a flotilla of some twenty…five spacecraft—most of them paratively small and cheap—are to be sent from Earth to Mars。 There will be no quick flybys among them； these are all long…duration orbiter and lander missions。 The United States will re…fly all of the scientific instruments that were lost on Mars Observer。 The Russian spacecraft will contain particularly ambitious experiments involving some twenty nations。 munications satellites will permit experimental stations anywhere on Mars to relay their data back to Earth。 Penetrators screeching down from orbit will punch into the Martian soil； transmitting data from underground。 Instrumented balloons and roving laboratories will wander over the sands of Mars。 Some microrobots will weigh no more than a few pounds。 Landing sites are being planned and coordinated。 Instruments will be cross…calibrated。 Data will be freely exchanged。 There is every reason to think that in the ing years Mars and its mysteries will bee increasingly familiar to the inhabitants of the planet Earth。
IN THE MAND CENTER on Earth； in a special room； you are helmeted and gloved。 You turn your head to the left； and the cameras on the Mars robot rover turn to the left。 You see； in very high definition and in color； what the cameras see。 You take a step forward； and the rover walks forward。 You reach out your arm to pick up something shiny in the soil； and the robot arm does likewise。 The sands of Mars trickle through your fingers。 The only difficulty with this remote reality technology is that all this must occur in tedious slow motion： The round…trip travel time of the up…link mands from Earth to Mars and the down…link data returned from Mars to Earth might take half an hour or more。 But this is something we can learn to do。 We can learn to contain our exploratory impatience if that's the price of exploring Mars。 The rover can be made smart enough to deal with routine contingencies。 Anything more challenging； and it makes a dead stop； puts itself into a safeguard mode； and radios for a very patient human controller to take over。
Conjure up roving； smart robots； each of them a small scientific laboratory； landing in the safe but dull places and wandering to view close…up some of that profusion of Martian Wonders。 Perhaps every day a robot would rove to its own horizon； each morning we would see close…up what had yesterday been only a distant eminence。 The lengthening progress of a traverse route over the Martian landscape would appear oil news programs and in schoolrooms。 People would speculate on what will be found。 Nightly newscasts from another planet； with their revelations of new terrains and new scientific findings would make everyone on Earth a party to the adventure。
Then there's Martian virtual reality： The data sent back from Mars； stored in a modern puter； are fed into your helmet and gloves and boots。 You are walking in an empty room on Earth； but to you you are on Mars： pink skies； fields of boulders； sand dunes stretching to the horizon where an immense volcano looms； you hear the sand crunching under your boots； you turn rocks over； dig a hole； sample the thin air； turn a corner； and e face to face with 。 。 。 whatever new discoveries we will make on Mars—all exact copies of what's on Mars； and all experienced from the safety of a virtual reality salon in your hometown。 This is not why we explore Mars； but clearly we will need robot explorers to return the real reality before it can be reconfigured into virtual reality。
Especially with continuing investment in robotics and machine intelligence； sending humans to Mars can't be justified by science alone。 And many more people can experience the virtual Mars than could possibly be sent to the real one。 We can do very well with robots。 If we're going to send people； we'll need a better reason than science and exploration。
In the 1980s； I thought I saw a coherent justification for human missions to Mars。 I imagined the United States and the Soviet Union； the two Cold War rivals that had put our global civilization at risk； joining together in a far…seeing； high…technology endeavor that would give hope to people everywhere。 I pictured a kind of Apollo program in reverse； in which cooperation； not petition； was the driving force； in which tire two leading space…faring nations would together lay the groundwork for a major advance in human history—the eventual settlement of another planet。
The symbolism seemed so apt。 The same technology that can propel apocalyptic weapons from continent to continent would enable the first human voyage to another planet。 It was a choice of fitting mythic power： to embrace the planet named after； rather the madness ascribed to； the god of war。
We succeeded in interesting Soviet scientists and engineers in such a joint endeavor。 Roald Sagdeev； then director of the Institute for Space Research of the Soviet Academy of Sciences in Moscow； was already deeply engaged in international cooperation on Soviet robotic missions to Venus； Mars； and Halley's et； long before the idea became fashionable。 Projected joint use of the Soviet Mir space station and the Saturn V…class launch vehicle Energiya made cooperation attractive to the Soviet organizations that manufactured these items of hardware； they were otherwise having difficulty justifying their wares。 Through a sequence of arguments